A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a subject and a predicate.
A
clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause.
1. A subordinate clause may be introduced by (1) a
relative or an interrogative pronoun, (2) a relative or an interrogative
adverb, (3) a subordinate conjunction.
The relative pronouns are: who, which, what, that (= who or which), as (after such or same), and the compound relatives whoever, whichever, whatever. Their uses have already been studied.
The
chief relative adverbs are: where, whence, whither, wherever, when, whenever, while, before, after, till, until, since, as, how, why.
The interrogative pronouns are: who, which, what.
The interrogative adverbs are: where, when, whence, whither, how, why.
The most important subordinate conjunctions are: because, since (= because), though, although, if, unless, that (in order that, so that), lest, as, as if, as though, than, whether (whether ... or).
2. According to their use as parts of speech,
subordinate clauses are adjective, adverbial, or noun clauses.
ADJECTIVE
CLAUSES
3. A subordinate clause that
modifies a substantive is called an adjective clause.
·
{Able men | Men of ability |
Men who show ability} can always find employment.
·
{Treeless spots | Spots without trees | Spots where no trees grew} were plainly visible.
In each
of these groups, a noun (men, spots) is modified (1) by an adjective, (2) by an
adjective phrase, (3) by an adjective clause. The sense remains unchanged.
4. Adjective clauses may be introduced (1) by relative pronouns, (2) by relative adverbs of place (where, whence, whither, etc.) or time (when, while, etc.).
ADVERBIAL
CLAUSES
5. A subordinate clause that
serves as an adverbial modifier is called an adverbial clause.
·
Jack spoke {thoughtlessly. | without thinking.
| before he thought.}
·
The schoolhouse
stands {there. | at the crossroads.
| where the roads meet.}
·
We pay our rent
{monthly. | on the first of every month.
| when the first of the month comes.}
In each
of these groups, the verb (spoke, stands, pay) is modified (1)
by an adverb, (2) by an adverbial phrase, (3) by an adverbial clause.
6. Adverbial clauses may be introduced (1) by
relative adverbs (when, where, before, etc.); (2)
by subordinate conjunctions (if, though, because, etc.); (3)
by relative or interrogative pronouns.
7. Adverbial clauses oftenest modify verbs, but they
are also common as modifiers of adjectives and adverbs.
·
Angry because he had failed, he abandoned the undertaking.
[The clause modifies angry.]
·
I am
uncertain which road I should take. [The
clause modifies uncertain.]
·
Farther than eye could see extended the waste of tossing
waters. [The clause modifies farther.]
·
Here, where the cliff was steepest, a low wall protected the
path. [The clause modifies here.]
8. An adverbial clause with that may be used to modify verbs and adjectives.
·
He
rejoiced that the victory was won.
·
I am glad that you are coming.
·
He was positive that no harm had been done.
·
They were
unwilling that the case should be brought to trial.
Note. In this use that is
equivalent either to “because” or to “as to the fact that.” The clause may be
explained as a noun clause in the adverbial objective construction
NOUN (OR
SUBSTANTIVE) CLAUSES
9. A subordinate clause that is
used as a noun is called a noun (or substantive) clause.
·
{Agreement | To agree | That we should agree} seemed impossible.
·
{Victory | To win | That we should win} was out of the question.
·
The merchant
feared {loss. | to lose. | that he might lose money.}
·
I expect {success. | to succeed. | that I shall succeed.}
In each
of these groups a noun (agreement, victory, etc.) is replaced (1) by an infinitive, (2) by
a noun clause. In the first two examples, the noun clause is the subject; in
the last two, it is the object of a verb (feared, expect).
10. Noun clauses may be used in any of the more
important constructions of nouns:—(1) as subject, (2)
as direct object of a transitive verb, (3) in apposition with a substantive, (4) as a predicate nominative.
·
That Milton was spared has often caused surprise. [Subject.]
·
Brutus
said that Cæsar was a tyrant. [Object of said.]
·
Cæsar
commanded that the prisoners should be spared.
[Object.]
·
I wish that you would work harder. [Object.]
·
The traveller
inquired where he could find the inn. [Object.]
·
He asked
me what my name was. [Second object of asked.]
·
My fear that the bridge might fall proved groundless.
[Apposition with fear.]
·
One fact is
undoubted,—that the state of America has been kept in continual agitation.—Burke. [Apposition with fact.]
·
The old saying
is that misery loves company. [Predicate nominative.]
11. Noun clauses may be introduced (1) by the
subordinate conjunctions that, whether (whether ... or),
and if (in the sense of whether); (2) by the interrogative pronouns who, which, what; (3) by the interrogative adverbs where, whence, whither, how, why, when .
12. Noun clauses are common as objects of verbs (1)
of commanding, desiring, etc.; (2)
of telling, thinking, etc.; (3)
of asking, doubting, etc.
Object
clauses frequently omit that .
·
Charles said
[that] he was sorry.
·
I hope you will come.
·
I wish he would help me.
13. A noun clause may be used as the retained object of a passive verb
|
Active Voice (Clause as Object) |
Passive Voice (Retained Object) |
|
They informed me that the train was late. |
I was informed that the train was late. |
|
Charles told us that the ice was thin. |
We were told that the ice was thin. |
|
They asked me whether (or if) I liked tennis. |
I was asked whether I liked tennis. |
14. A noun clause may be the object of a preposition.
·
I see no reason
for a lawsuit except that both parties are stubborn.
[Compare: except the stubbornness of
both.]
·
She never
studies, except when she can find nothing else to do.
·
I could say
nothing but [=except] that I was sorry.
·
Justice was
well administered in his time, save where the king was party.—Bacon.
·
She could see
me from where she stood.
·
There is a
dispute as to which of the miners first staked out the claim.
15. Noun clauses with that are
common in the predicate when the expletive it is the
grammatical subject.
·
It was
plain that war was at hand.
·
It was
clear that this administration would last but a very short time.
·
It must be
admitted that there were many extenuating circumstances.
·
It was by slow
degrees that Fox became a brilliant and powerful debater.
·
It was under
the command of a foreign general that the British had triumphed
at Minden.
In such
sentences the real subject of the thought is the clause. This, however, may be
regarded as grammatically in apposition with it, as if one said “It (that war was at hand) was plain.”
Note. This useful idiom enables us to adopt a kind of
inverted order, and thus to shift the emphasis. Contrast “That war was at hand was plain” with “It was plain that war was at hand.” In the former sentence,
the noun clause is made prominent; in the latter, the adjective plain.
16. The following sentences, taken from distinguished
authors of different periods, illustrate the usefulness of the noun clause in
its various constructions.
·
1. That the king
would ever again have received Becket into favor is not to be believed.—Southey.
·
2. That in
education we should proceed from the simple to the complex is a truth which has
always been to some extent acted on.—Spencer.
·
3. How great
his reputation was, is proved by the embassies sent to him.—Coleridge.
·
4. It vexed old
Hawkins that his counsel was not followed.—Fuller.
·
5. It became
necessary, at last, that I should arouse both master and valet to the
expediency of removing the treasure.—Poe.
·
6. There is no
doubt that breeds may be made as different as species in many physiological
characteristics.—Huxley.
·
7. The main
definition you could give of old Marquis Mirabeau is, that he was of the pedant
species.—Carlyle.
·
8. The fact
seems to be that we have survived the tremendous explosion.—Brougham.
·
9. The question
is, whether the feigned image of poesy, or the regular instruction of
philosophy, have the more force in teaching.—Sidney.
·
10. I feared
that some serious disaster had befallen my friend.—Poe.
·
11. I think
with you that the most magnificent object under heaven is the great deep.—Cowper.
·
12. Aureolus
soon discovered that the success of his artifices had only raised up a more
determined adversary.—Gibbon.
·
13. Harold
alleged that he was appointed by Edward.—Temple.
·
14. That we
shall die, we know.—Shakspere.
·
15. Her Majesty
has promised that the treaty shall be laid before her Parliament.—Swift.
·
16. Deerslayer
proposed that they should circle the point in the canoe.—Cooper.
·
17. I
remembered how soft was the hand of Sleep.—Landor.
·
18. I cannot
see what objection can justly be made to the practice.—Reynolds.
·
19. No man knew
what was to be expected from this strange tribunal.—Macaulay.
·
20. We may
imagine with what sensations the stupefied Spaniards must have gazed on this
horrid spectacle.—Prescott.
·
21. Observe how
graciously Nature instructs her human children.—Coleridge.
·
22. My friend
asked me if there would not be some danger in coming home late.—Addison.
·
23. A message
came that the committee was sitting at Kensington Palace.—Thackeray.
·
24. Jeffreys
had obtained of the king a promise that he would not pardon her.—Burnet.
·
25. The present
age seems pretty well agreed in an opinion that the utmost scope and end of
reading is amusement only.—Fielding.
·
26. He suddenly
alarmed me by a startling question—whether I had seen the show of prize cattle
that morning in Smithfield.—Lamb.
·
27. I am told
that the Lancashire system is perfect.—Kingsley.
THE MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
17. Subordinate clauses may be classified not only
according to their use as parts of speech, but also, in quite a different way,
in accordance with their various meanings.
These distinctions in idea are of capital importance for the accurate and
forcible expression of thought.
18. The variety of meanings which subordinate clauses
may express is great, but most of these meanings come under the following
heads:—(1) place or time, (2) cause, (3) concession, (4) purpose, (5) result, (6) condition, (7) comparison,43 (8) indirect discourse,
(9) indirect question.
The
general meaning of the clause is usually indicated by the word which introduces
it.
CLAUSES
OF PLACE AND TIME
19. An adjective or an adverbial
clause may express place or time.
I. Adjective Clauses
·
The house where the robbery occurred is No. 14.
·
The
bridge over which we rode is in ruins.
·
There is a
point beyond which you cannot go.
·
The day when (or on which) I was to sail arrived at last.
·
The day before you came was rainy.
·
His
terror while it thundered was pitiable.
II. Adverbial Clauses
·
Remain where I can see you.
·
That
belongs where you found it.
·
Whithersoever I go, fear dogs my steps.
·
Whenever the bell rings, you must take down the receiver.
·
Esmond heard
the chimes as he sat in his own chamber.
·
I have lived in
Cairo since my father died.
20. Adjective clauses of place and time may be
introduced by relative pronouns (see examples above).
Adjective
and adverbial clauses of place and time may be introduced by relative adverbs.
Thus,—
·
Place: where, whence, whither, wherever, whithersoever, wherefrom,
whereto, etc.
·
Time: when, whenever, while, as, before, after, until,
since.
21. Clauses of time are sometimes shortened by the
omission of the copula and its subject.
·
When [he was] rescued, he was almost dead.
·
Tom was
attacked by cramp while swimming across the
river.
CAUSAL
CLAUSES
22. An adverbial clause may express
cause.
Causal
clauses are
introduced by the subordinate conjunctions because, since, as, inasmuch as, and sometimes that.
·
I came
home because I was tired.
·
As the day was clear, we decided to climb the mountain.
·
Since you will not relent, you must take the consequences.
·
We were
glad that the wreck was no worse.
·
Tom was
delighted that his friend was safe.
Since is a preposition or an adverb when it
denotes time; as is an adverb
when it denotes time. Both since and as are
conjunctions when they express cause.
CONCESSIVE
CLAUSES
23. An adverbial clause may express
concession.
A concessive clause is usually introduced by a
subordinate conjunction, though, although, or even if. It admits (or concedes) some fact or
supposition in spite of which the
assertion in the main clause is made.
·
Although I do not like his
manners, I respect his
character.
·
We won the
game, though we expected to lose.
·
Even if you fail, you will have gained experience.
·
Even if you were a king, you would find somebody or something more powerful
than yourself.
·
Though he should read books
forever, he would not
grow wise.
Note. While is often
used as a weaker or more courteous synonym for although.
The main
clause, when it follows the concessive clause, may be emphasized by means
of yet, still, nevertheless.
·
Although the
task was heavy, yet his courage never failed.
[Although and yet are
correlative conjunctions.]
·
Though his
reputation was great at home, yet it was
greater abroad.
Concessive
clauses sometimes omit the copula and its subject.
·
Though [he was] tired, he was not disheartened.
·
This
punishment, though perhaps necessary, seems
rather severe.
24. A concessive clause may be introduced by the
conjunction as, or by a relative pronoun or a
relative adverb.
·
{Whatever you say, | Whichever argument you present, | However much you object,} he will carry his point.
·
Weak as I am, I will make the effort.
·
Gay as the scene was, ’twas but a dreary place for Mr. Esmond.
Note. The adverbial use of however is quite distinct from its use as a
coördinate conjunction.
25. Concession is sometimes expressed by a
subjunctive clause without a conjunction to introduce it .
·
Be it ever so humble, there’s no place like home.
·
I will help
you, cost what it may!
CLAUSES
OF PURPOSE AND OF RESULT
26. A subordinate clause may
express purpose or result.
I. Clauses of Purpose
·
These men
died that we might live.
·
I will take
care that you are not harmed.
·
John worked day
and night that the plans might be ready in time.
·
We threw our
ballast overboard, so that the airship might clear
the treetops.
·
All our
arrangements have been made with the utmost precision, in order that the ship may be launched promptly and without
accident.
II. Clauses of Result
·
He has
recovered his strength, so that he can now work.
·
The town stood
at the foot of the volcano, so that every building was
destroyed.
·
Quentin
started so suddenly that he almost dropped his
weapon.
·
His rancor
against the duke was so apparent that one saw it in the first half-hour’s conversation.
·
Their minds were so much embittered that they
imputed to each other nothing less than deliberate villany.
·
You make such a noise that I cannot hear the music.
27. Clauses of purpose may
be introduced by the subordinate conjunction that or by a
phrase containing it (so that, in order that, to the end that,
etc.).
Negative
clauses of purpose may be introduced by that ... not or
by lest.
Take
heed lest thou fall.
·
I feared lest I might anger thee.—Shakspere.
28. Clauses of result may
be introduced by the phrase so that, consisting
of the adverb so and the subordinate
conjunction that; or by that alone, especially when so, such, or some
similar word stands in the main clause.
29. A clause of purpose or
of result may be either an adverbial clause or a substantive clause.
·
I intend that you shall be elected. [Object.]
·
My intention
is that you shall be appointed. [Predicate nominative.]
·
The result
is that he is bankrupt. [Predicate nominative.]
·
His exertions
had this effect, that the vote was unanimous.
[Appositive.]
A substantive
clause of purpose is often used as the object of a
verb of commanding, desiring, or the
like.
·
The general
ordered that the fort should be blown up.
·
The prisoner
begged that his fetters might be struck off.
Purpose may be
expressed by the infinitive with to or in order to, and result by the infinitive with to or as to.
·
He abandoned
his profession to [or in order to] become a missionary.
[Purpose.]
·
He was kind
enough to help me. [Result. Compare: He was so kind that he helped me.]
·
He was so
kind as to help me. [Result.]
Negative
result is often
expressed by the adverb too and the
infinitive.
Iron is too heavy to float. [Compare:
Iron is so heavy that it does not float.]
30. Purpose may be expressed by an infinitive clause.
·
The teacher
intended us to finish the book. [Compare: The teacher
intended that we should finish the book.]
·
The foreman
ordered the engine to be stopped. [Compare: The foreman
ordered that the engine should be stopped.]
CONDITIONAL
SENTENCES
31. A clause that expresses a
condition introduced by if, or by some equivalent word or phrase,
is called a conditional clause.
A
sentence that contains a conditional clause is called a conditional sentence.
·
If it rains, we shall remain at home.
·
I shall attend
the convention if I am in town.
·
I will take
this book, if you please.
32. A conditional sentence in
its simplest form consists of two parts:—
(1) A
subordinate (adverbial) clause, commonly introduced by if, and expressing the condition.
(2) A
main clause expressing the conclusion, that is,
the statement which is true in case the condition expressed in the if-clause is true.
Thus in the
first example the condition is if it rains; the conclusion is we shall remain at home.
Either
the condition or the conclusion may come first.
The conditional
clause is often called the protasis, and the
conclusion is often called the apodosis.
The conclusion of a conditional sentence may be
declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.
·
If you go to
Philadelphia, where shall you stay?
[Interrogative.]
·
Sit here, if you wish. [Imperative.]
·
If you win the
prize, how glad I shall be! [Exclamatory.]
33. A conditional clause may be introduced by provided (or provided that), granted that, supposing (or suppose), on condition that.
·
I will permit
you to go, on condition that you come
home early.
·
You may have
the money, provided you will put it in
the bank.
·
Supposing (or suppose) it rains,
what shall we do?
Suppose is really an imperative and supposing a participle, the clause being the
object.
34. A negative condition is
commonly introduced by if ... not or unless.
·
I will wait for
him, if you do not object.
·
Unless you overcome that habit, you will be ruined.
35. Double (or alternative) conditions may
be introduced by whether ... or.
·
Whether he goes or stays, he must pay a week’s board.
[Compare: If he goes or if he stays, etc.]
·
He is
determined to buy that car, whether you
approve or not. [That is: if you
approve or if you do not approve.]
36. A conditional clause may be introduced by whoever, whenever, or some
similar compound.
·
Whoever offends, is punished. [Compare: If anybody offends, he is punished.]
·
Whoever shall offend, shall be punished.
·
Whomever you ask, you will be disappointed. [Compare: If
you shall ask anybody.]
·
He will
come whenever [= if ever] he is
called.
Note. In older English and in poetry, who is common in this construction: as,—“Who [= whoever] steals my
purse, steals trash” (Shakspere).
37. A conditional clause sometimes omits the copula
and its subject.
·
I will go if [it is] necessary.
·
If [it is] possible, come to-morrow.
The if-clause is sometimes used as an exclamation, with the
conclusion omitted.
If I only had a
rifle!
38. A condition may be expressed by means of an
assertion, a question, an imperative, or the absolute construction.
·
We take the
receiver from the hook, and the operator answers. We replace it, and the
connection is broken. [Compare: If we take the receiver from the hook, the
operator answers, etc.]
·
Press that
button, and the bell will ring.
·
Do you refuse?
Then you must take the consequences.
·
We shall sail
on Monday, weather permitting.
Note. In such cases, there is no subordinate
conditional clause. Thus, in the first example, we have two independent
coördinate clauses, making a compound sentence.
CLAUSES
OF COMPARISON
39. An adverbial clause introduced by as if may express comparison.
· You speak as if you were angry.
·
He
breathes as if he were exhausted.
·
She cared for
me as if I had been her son.
As though is also used, but as if is
now preferred by most writers.
The subjunctive were, not the indicative was, is used after as if
40. As and than, as subordinate conjunctions, introduce clauses of comparison or degree.
·
You are as
old as he [is].
·
I am
younger than you [are].
·
He weighs as
much as I [weigh].
·
I pity you
more than [I pity] her.
When the
verb is omitted, the substantive that follows as or than is in the same case in which it would stand
if the verb were expressed. Thus,—
·
You are
stronger than he. [Not: than him.]
·
I see you
oftener than him. [Not: than he.]
·
He plays a
better game than I. [Not:
than me.]
·
They will miss
John more than me. [That is: more than they
miss me.]
INDIRECT DISCOURSE
41. A quotation may be direct or indirect.
A direct quotation repeats a speech or thought in
its original form.
·
I replied: “I
am sorry to hear it.”
·
“Henceforth,”
he explained, “I shall call on Tuesdays.”
·
“You must see
California,” she insisted.
·
“Elizabeth no
longer lives here,” he said.
·
“I know nothing
about it,” was the witness’s reply.
·
“Where,”
thought I, “are the crew?”47
An indirect quotation repeats a speech or thought in
substance, but usually with some change in its form.
An
indirect quotation, when a statement, is a subordinate clause dependent on some
word of saying or thinking, and
introduced by the conjunction that.
·
I replied that I was sorry to hear it. [Direct: I am sorry.]
·
He
explained that henceforth he should call on Tuesdays.
·
She
insisted that I must see California.
A
direct quotation begins
with a capital letter, unless it is a fragment of a sentence.
It is enclosed in quotation marks.
An
indirect quotation begins
with a small letter. It usually has no quotation marks.
42. A substantive clause introduced
by that may be used with verbs and other expressions of telling, thinking, knowing,
and perceiving, to report the words or thought of a person in
substance, but usually with some change of form.
Such
clauses are said to be in the indirect discourse.
For
distinction, a remark or a thought in its original form (as in a direct
quotation) is said to be in the direct discourse.
43. Statements in indirect discourse,
being substantive clauses, may be used in various noun constructions: (1)
as object of some verb of telling, thinking, or the
like, (2) as subject, (3) as predicate nominative, (4) as appositive.
·
He said that the box was empty. [Object.]
·
That the box was empty was all he could say. [Subject.]
·
My remark
was that the bill is a menace. [Predicate nominative.]
·
Your
remark, that the bill is a menace, has aroused vigorous
protest. [Apposition.]
44. The conjunction that is often
omitted.
·
Jack said [that] he was sorry.
·
I hope [that] you can come.
·
I know he is
too busy a man to have leisure for me.—Cowper.
45. In indirect discourse, after the past or the
pluperfect tense, the present tense of the direct discourse becomes past, and
the perfect becomes pluperfect.
·
1.Direct: I am tired.
·
Indirect: John {said | had said} that he was tired.
·
2.Direct: I have won.
·
Indirect: John {said | had said} that he had won.
But a
general or universal truth always remains in the present tense.
·
Direct: Air is a gas.
·
Indirect: I told him that air is a gas.
·
Indirect: I had told him a hundred times that air is a gas.
46. The clause with that in
indirect discourse is sometimes replaced by an infinitive clause.
·
The jury
declared him to be innocent. [Compare: The jury declared that he was innocent.]
·
Morton
admitted them to be counterfeit. [Compare: Morton admitted that they were counterfeit.]
In these
sentences, him and them are, of course, the subjects of the
infinitives, not the objects of declared and admitted.
47. When the verb of telling or thinking is in the passive
voice, three constructions occur:—
1. A
clause with that is used as the subject of
the passive verb.
That Rogers
desires the office is commonly reported.
2. The
expletive it is used as the grammatical
subject, and a that-clause follows the passive
verb.
It is commonly
reported that Rogers desires the office.
3. The
subject of the that-clause becomes the subject of
the passive verb, and the verb of the clause is replaced by an infinitive.
Rogers is
commonly reported to desire the office.
The
choice among these three idioms is largely a matter of emphasis or euphony. The
first may easily become heavy or awkward, and it is therefore less common than
either of the others.
Note. The third of these idioms is often called
the personal construction, to distinguish it from the
second, in which the grammatical subject is the impersonal it. The infinitive in this third idiom may be regarded
as a peculiar adverbial modifier of the passive verb.
Further
examples of the three constructions with passive verbs of telling, thinking, etc., are
the following:—
·
That in
vivacity, humor, and eloquence, the Irish stand high among the nations of the
world is now universally acknowledged.—Macaulay.
·
It is admitted
that the exercise of the imagination is most delightful.—Shelley.
·
It must be owned
that Charles’s life has points of some originality.—Stevenson.
·
Porto Bello is
still said to be impregnable, and it is reported the Dutch have declared war
against us.—Gray.
·
He was
generally believed to have been a pirate.—Lytton.
·
Pope may be
said to write always with his reputation in his head.—Johnson.
·
She was
observed to flutter her fan with such vehement rapidity that the elaborate
delicacy of its workmanship gave way.—Hawthorne.
·
This is said to
be the only château in France in which the ancient furniture of its original
age is preserved.—Longfellow.
48. A substantive clause with that is common after it seems, it is true, it is evident, and similar expressions.
·
It seems that Robert has lost all his money.
·
It is
true that genius does not always bring happiness with it.
·
It is
evident that Andrews tells the truth.
49. The uses of shall and will, should and would, in indirect discourse are
the same as in the direct,48 with
the following exception:—
When
the first person with shall or should in
direct discourse becomes the second or third person in the indirect, shall or should is
retained.
·
Direct: You say, “I shall die.”
·
Indirect: You say that you shall die.
·
Direct: You said, “I shall die.”
·
Indirect: You said that you should die.
·
Direct: He says, “I shall die.”
·
Indirect: He says that he shall die.
·
Direct: He said, “I shall die.”
·
Indirect: He said that he should die.
The
reason for the retention of shall or should is that, in such cases, the second or third
person of the indirect discourse represents the first person of the direct.
The
change from shall (after says) to should (after said) is a mere change of tense.
Note. The general principle is, to retain in the
indirect discourse the auxiliary of the direct, simply changing the tense if
necessary. This principle of course covers the use of you or he shall or should to represent I shall or should. There is,
however, one important exception to the general principle: when its application
would result in the use of I will or I would to express mere futurity, I shall or I should is
employed. Thus, John says to Charles, “If you fall overboard, you will drown”; but Charles, reporting this, must
say, “John tells me that, if I fall overboard, I shall [NOT will] drown.” The
general rule, then, may be stated as follows: The indirect discourse retains
the auxiliary of the direct (with a change in tense, if necessary), unless such
retention makes will or would express simple futurity in the first
person,—in that case, shall or should is used.
50. The following sentences illustrate the correct
use of shall and will, should and would, in the
indirect discourse:—
·
1. He writes me
that he believes he shall be at Eton till the
middle of November.—Gray. [Direct: I
shall be at Eton.]
·
2. He that
would pass the latter part of his life with honor and decency, must, while he
is young, consider that he shall one
day be old.—Johnson. [Direct:
I shall one day be old.]
·
3. Could he but
reduce the Aztec capital, he felt that he should be
safe.—Prescott. [Direct:
I shall be safe.]
·
4. Plantagenet
took it into his head that he should like
to learn to play at bowls.—Disraeli. [Direct:
I should like.]
·
5. He answered
that he should be very proud of hoisting his flag under
Sir John’s command.—Southey. [Direct:
I shall (or should) be, etc.]
·
6. He knew that
if he applied himself in earnest to the work of reformation, he should raise every bad passion in arms against
him.—Macaulay. [Direct:
If I apply myself ..., I shall raise, etc.]
·
7. He was
pleased to say that he should like
to have the author in his service.—Carlyle. [Direct:
I should like.]
·
8. Mr. Tristram
at last declared that he was overcome
with fatigue, and should be happy to sit down.—Henry James. [Direct: I should be
happy.]
·
9. She vowed
that unless he made a great match, she should never
die easy.—Thackeray. [Direct:
Unless you make a great match, I shall never die easy.]
·
10. You think
now I shall get into a scrape at home. You think I shall scream and plunge and spoil everything.—George Eliot. [Direct: She will
get into a scrape, etc.]
·
11. You in a
manner impose upon them the necessity of being silent, by declaring that you will be so yourself.—Cowper. [Determination: I will be silent.]
·
12. He [Swift]
tells them that he will run away and leave them,
if they do not instantly make a provision for him.—Jeffrey. [Threat: I will run away.]
·
13. The king
declared that he would not reprieve her for
one day.—Mackintosh. [Direct:
I will not.]
·
14. Horace
declares that he would not for all the world
get into a boat with a man who had divulged the Eleusinian mysteries.—Cowper. [Direct: I would not.]
·
15. I called up
Sirboko, and told him, if he would liberate
this one man to please me, he should be no
loser.—Speke. [Direct: If
you will liberate, etc., you shall be no loser.]
·
16. We
concluded that, if we did not come at some water in ten days’ time, we would return.—De
Foe. [Direct: If we do not, etc., we will return.]
·
17. With a
theatrical gesture and the remark that I should see,
he opened some cages and released half a dozen cats.—W. J. Locke. [Direct: You shall see.]
INDIRECT
QUESTIONS
51. A question expressed in the
form actually used in asking it is called a direct question.
·
What is your
name?
·
“What is your
name?” he asked.
The
direct form may be retained when the question is quoted or reported, as in the
second example above. Often, however, a question is quoted or reported, not in
the direct form, but in the form of a subordinate clause:
as,—
He asked what my name was.
Such a
clause is called an indirect question.
52. An indirect question expresses
the substance of a direct question in the form of a subordinate clause.
Indirect
questions depend on verbs or other expressions of asking, doubting, thinking, perceiving,
and the like.
·
Franklin
asked where the difficulty lay. [Direct question: “Where does
the difficulty lie?”]
·
The sergeant
wondered how he should escape. [Direct question: “How shall I
escape?”]
·
I have not
decided which train I shall take. [Direct question: “Which
train shall I take?”]
53. Both direct and indirect questions may be introduced (1) by the
interrogative pronouns who, which, what; (2) by the
interrogative adverbs when, where, whence, whither, how, why.
Indirect
questions may be
introduced by the subordinate conjunctions whether (whether ... or) and if.
The use of tenses in indirect questions is the same as in the indirect discourse.
·
The constable
inquired whether (or if) I lived in Casterbridge. [His question was: Do you live
in Casterbridge?]
·
Your father
wishes to know if you have been playing truant.
[Direct question: Have you been playing truant?]
·
I
considered whether I should apply to Kent or to Arnold.
[Direct question: Shall I apply to Kent or to Arnold?]
54. Indirect questions are usually noun clauses. They
may be used in various noun constructions: (1) as object of some verb of asking or the like, (2) as subject, (3) as predicate nominative,
(4) as appositive, (5) as object of a
preposition.
·
The skipper
asked what had become of the cook. [Object.]
·
He was
asked what his profession was. [Retained object after the
passive.]
·
How we could escape was a difficult question. [Subject.]
·
The problem was how they should find food. [Predicate nominative.]
·
The
question who was to blame has never been settled.
[Apposition with question.]
·
They all felt
great perplexity as to what they should do.
[Object of a preposition.]
An
indirect question may be an adverbial clause.
·
They were
uncertain what course they should take. [The
clause modifies uncertain.]
·
Edmund was in
doubt where he should spend the night. [The clause modifies
the adjective phrase in doubt.]
55. Since the pronouns who, which, and what may be either interrogative or relative, an
indirect question may closely resemble a relative clause. These two
constructions, however, are sharply distinguished. A relative clause
always asserts something. An indirect question, on the
contrary, has an interrogative sense which may
be seen by turning the question into the direct form.
The
sailor who saved the child is a Portuguese. [The
clause who saved the child is a relative clause, for it
makes a distinct assertion about the sailor,—namely, that he saved the child. Who is a relative pronoun and sailor is its antecedent.]
{I asked | I do
not know | It is still a question | It is doubtful} who saved the child. [Here the clause who saved the child makes no assertion. On the
contrary, it expresses a question which may easily be put in a direct form with
an interrogation point: “Who saved the child?” Who is
an interrogative pronoun. It has no antecedent.]
The
following examples further illustrate the difference between these two
constructions:—
·
1.I foresee the course which he will take.
[Relative clause.]
·
I foresee which course he will take. [Indirect question.]
·
2.I heard what he said.
[Relative clause. What = “that which.”]
·
I
wondered what he said. [Indirect question. What is an interrogative pronoun.]
·
3.This is the man who brought the news.
[Relative clause.]
·
The king
asked who brought the news. [Indirect question.]
·
4.Here is a paper which you must sign.
[Relative clause.]
·
The clerk will
tell you which paper you must sign. [Indirect question.]
Note. In such a sentence as “Tom knows who saved the child,” the indirect question may at
first appear to be a relative clause with an omitted antecedent (the man, or the person). If,
however, we insert such an antecedent (“Tom knows the man who saved the child”), the meaning is
completely changed. In the original sentence, it is stated that Tom knows the
answer to the question, “Who saved the child?” In the new form of the sentence,
it is stated that Tom is acquainted with a certain person, and to this is added
an assertion about this person in the form of a relative clause.
56. An indirect question is sometimes expressed by
means of an interrogative pronoun or adverb followed by an infinitive.
·
Whom to choose is a serious question. [Direct question: Whom
shall we choose?]
·
John
asked what to do. [John’s question was: What shall I do?]
·
I know where to go. [Direct question: Where shall I go?]
·
Tell me when to strike the bell.
·
I was at a
loss how to reply.
·
I am in
doubt how to begin this essay.
In the
first four examples the italicized phrase is used as a noun (either as subject
or object). In the fifth, the phrase how to reply is
adverbial, modifying the adjective phrase at a loss.
57. The subjunctive was formerly common in indirect
questions, and is still occasionally used after if or whether.
·
I doubt if
it be true.
·
Elton
questioned whether the project were wise.
58. The rule for shall (should) and will (would) in indirect questions is, to retain the
auxiliary used in the direct question, merely changing the tense (shall to should; will to would) when
necessary.
|
1. |
|
I. Mere
Futurity |
|
Direct: |
What shall I do? |
|
|
Indirect: |
·
I wonder
what I shall do. ·
You ask me
what you shall do. ·
He asks me
what he shall do. ·
I wondered
what I should do. ·
You asked me
what you should do. ·
He asked me
what he should do. |
|
|
2. |
Direct: |
Shall you lose
your position? |
|
Indirect: |
·
{I ask | He
asks} you if you shall lose your
position. ·
{I asked | He
asked} you if you should lose your
position. |
|
|
3. |
Direct: |
Will Charles lose
his position? |
|
Indirect: |
·
I ask
if Charles will lose his position. ·
{I | You |
Tom} asked if Charles would lose his
position. |
|
|
4. |
|
II. Volition |
|
Direct: |
Will you help
me? |
|
|
Indirect: |
·
You ask
if I will help you. ·
He asks
if I will help him. ·
You asked
if I would help you. ·
He asked
if I would help him. ·
{I asked him
| You asked him | Tom asked him} if he would {help
me. | help you. | help him.} |
|
|
|
||
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